The History of Bank Bailouts

Bank bailouts are hardly a novel concept, but rather have been implemented for centuries. Even in the earliest days of banking, bailouts have been used in times of crisis. In the 19th and 20th centuries, bank failures were more common than they are today, due to a lack of regulation, standardization and supervision. Even in the United States, banks from one state could issue currency that was not recognized in another. This was because for a period of time, the US did not have a unified currency until the mid 19th century. In response, governments around the world started providing support to struggling banks to prevent a run on the banks and protect depositors.

During the Great Depression in the United States, the federal government created the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to provide loans to struggling banks and businesses. The RFC was able to help prevent a total collapse of the banking system, and helped to stabilize the overall economy.

More recently, the global financial crisis of 2008 prompted a series of bank bailouts by governments around the world. With the collapse of Lehman Brothers and other major banks and financial institutions, and with the freezing of credit markets, a panic ensued. Governments responded with very large bailouts to prevent further collapse.

Throughout history, there have been many significant bailouts throughout the world. Here are the 5 biggest bailouts in history:

1. Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), United States (2008): TARP was a $700 billion bailout package passed by the U.S. government in response to the 2008 financial crisis. It provided funds to rescue major financial institutions, including Citigroup, Bank of America, and AIG.
2. Royal Bank of Scotland (2008), United Kingdom: The U.K. government bailed out Royal Bank of Scotland (RBS) with a £45.5 billion ($58 billion) bailout package during the 2008 financial crisis. The government took an 84% stake in the bank as a result.
3. Bankia (2012), Spain: Bankia was Spain’s fourth-largest bank when it required a €19 billion ($22 billion) bailout from the Spanish government in 2012. The bank’s collapse contributed to Spain’s sovereign debt crisis.
4. Hypo Real Estate (2008), Germany: Hypo Real Estate was a major German bank that required a €50 billion ($58 billion) bailout from the German government during the 2008 financial crisis.
5. Long-Term Credit Bank of Japan (1998), Japan: The Long-Term Credit Bank of Japan was a major Japanese bank that required a bailout of ¥3.5 trillion ($32 billion) from the Japanese government in 1998. It was one of several Japanese banks that collapsed during the country’s “lost decade” of economic stagnation.

These 5 bailouts were the largest in world history. These bailouts demonstrate the significance that bank failures can have on the overall economy. In many cases, the cost of these bailouts was burdened on the shoulders of taxpayers.

Of those 5, the bailout following the financial crisis of 2008 in the United States was the most significant, at roughly $700 billion. The exact amount that the American taxpayers had to pay is difficult to calculate, as various factors come into play beyond the specific dollar amount. This includes the ultimate cost of various bailout programs, as well as the overall economic impact of the crisis. However, it is estimated that the direct financial burden of the bailout to taxpayers was approximately $426 billion, while the overall cost of the crisis to the U.S. economy, including lost output and reduced tax revenue, was much higher. Astonishingly, this figure is estimated to be in the trillions of dollars.

Looking domestically, the biggest bank bailouts in U.S. history are:

1. Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), 2008: TARP was a $700 billion bailout package passed by the U.S. government in response to the 2008 financial crisis. It provided funds to rescue major financial institutions, including Citigroup, Bank of America, and AIG.
2. Savings and Loan Crisis, 1980s-1990s: The Savings and Loan (S&L) Crisis was a financial crisis that occurred in the U.S. from the mid-1980s to the early 1990s. The federal government bailed out hundreds of S&Ls with a total cost of over $124 billion.
3. Citigroup, 2008: Citigroup received $45 billion in bailout funds from TARP in 2008. The bank was one of the largest beneficiaries of the program.
4. Bank of America, 2008: Bank of America received $45 billion in bailout funds from TARP in 2008. The bank was also one of the largest beneficiaries of the program.
5. American International Group (AIG), 2008: AIG received $70 billion in bailout funds from TARP in 2008. The insurance company was on the verge of collapse due to risky investments in mortgage-backed securities.

Of the 5 largest bailouts in US history, 4 occurred in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis. This gives a glimpse into the significance of that period and the far reaching consequences that are still being felt to this day.

Types of Bank Bailouts

Bank bailouts can come in various forms. For example, in 2008 the government bailed out the banks via capital injections in exchange for preferred stock or other securities, and also included other forms of support, such as the Federal Reserve’s emergency lending facilities, which provided short term funding to banks financial institutions

The most common types of bank bailouts that governments use include:

1. Capital Injections: Governments provide funding to banks in exchange for ownership or preferred shares in the bank.
2. Guarantees: Governments guarantee the deposits and debt of a bank, providing reassurance to depositors and creditors.
3. Loans: Governments provide loans to struggling banks to help them meet short-term liquidity needs.
4. Nationalization: Governments take over control of a bank and run it as a public entity.

The Pros and Cons of Bank Bailouts

There are several arguments both for and against bailouts. Supporters argue that bailouts are necessary in order to prevent a total collapse of the financial system. A complete collapse would of course have catastrophic consequences for the economy and society. Supporters also argue that bailouts can help prevent the loss of jobs and protect the savings of depositors.

Critics of bailouts argue that they reward poor decision making by banks, and encourage risk taking. They also argue the moral hazards point of view, where banks feel that they can take risks without fear of failure because they believe the government will always bail them out. Moreover, critics argue that because the burden typically falls on taxpayers’ shoulders, the ethics behind bank bailouts are not adequate.

Here are 5 of the main sources of funds that are typically used to bail out failed banks:

1. Government funds: Governments can use taxpayer money to bail out failed banks. This may involve injecting funds directly into the bank or guaranteeing the bank’s liabilities.
2. Central bank funds: Central banks can lend money to banks in distress. In some cases, they may also purchase assets from banks or provide other forms of financial assistance.
3. Deposit insurance funds: In many countries, deposit insurance funds exist to protect depositors in the event of a bank failure. These funds are typically funded by premiums paid by banks and may be used to compensate depositors or to recapitalize failed banks.
4. Private investors: Private investors, such as hedge funds or private equity firms, may provide funding to bail out a failed bank in exchange for ownership or other forms of financial gain.
5. International organizations: In some cases, international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) may provide funding to bail out failed banks.

It is important to note that the specific sources of funds used to bail out a failed bank can vary depending on the country and the circumstances surrounding the failure. Moreover, these are not the only ways banks can be bailed out — only the most often used methods.

Signs That Precede a Bank’s Collapse

It is essential to be aware of the signs that a bank may be in trouble so that you can take necessary precautions to protect your financial assets. Here are some warning signs that may indicate a bank’s impending collapse.

1. Low Capital Adequacy Ratio: The capital adequacy ratio is the ratio of a bank’s capital to its risk-weighted assets. This ratio indicates a bank’s ability to withstand losses. If a bank has a low capital adequacy ratio, it may not have enough capital to absorb significant losses and may be at risk of collapse.
2. High Level of Non-performing Loans: Non-performing loans are loans that are not being repaid according to their terms. If a bank has a high level of non-performing loans, it indicates that borrowers are struggling to repay their debts, and the bank may be at risk of significant losses.
3. Rapid Growth: While rapid growth may seem like a positive sign for a bank, it can be an indicator of potential trouble. If a bank is growing too quickly, it may be taking on too much risk, and its ability to manage that risk may be compromised.
4. Poor Management: A bank with poor management can quickly become vulnerable to financial instability. Signs of poor management include excessive risk-taking, inadequate internal controls, and a lack of transparency.
5. Declining Profitability: A bank’s profitability is a critical indicator of its financial health. If a bank’s profits are declining, it may be a sign that the bank is not generating enough revenue to cover its expenses or that it is incurring significant losses.
6. Liquidity Issues: A bank’s ability to meet its financial obligations as they become due is critical to its survival. If a bank has liquidity issues, it may not be able to meet customer demands for withdrawals or fund its operations, which can quickly lead to a bank run.
7. Regulatory Intervention: When a bank is subject to regulatory intervention, it may be a sign that the bank is experiencing financial difficulties. Regulatory intervention can take the form of sanctions, fines, or even forced closure.

While these signs are not definitive, they can serve as potential red flags indicating that a bank may be in trouble.

Why Not Just Let the Banks Fail?

If banks are not bailed out and allowed to collapse, it can have significant consequences for the economy and the financial system. Some of the possible consequences are:

1. Loss of confidence: When a bank collapses, it can erode public confidence in the financial system. This loss of confidence can lead to a run on other banks, as depositors rush to withdraw their funds, which can exacerbate the crisis.

2. Bank Runs: When one bank collapses, especially if it is a major institution, this can create panic and a run on the banks. A bank run is when large numbers of people rush to withdraw their deposits. Due to the fractional reserve nature of the currency banking system, banks are usually not able to supply everyone’s simultaneous withdrawals. Bank runs can exacerbate or accelerate a financial crisis.

3. Economic recession: The collapse of a bank can have a ripple effect on the economy, as it can lead to a credit crunch and a contraction in lending. This, in turn, can lead to a slowdown in economic activity and potentially a recession.

4. Job losses: Bank failures can result in significant job losses, as employees of the failed bank and other businesses that relied on the bank may be affected.

5. Loss of savings: When a bank fails, depositors may lose their savings if the deposits exceed the limit covered by deposit insurance. This can have a significant impact on individuals and businesses who may not be able to recover their savings.

6. Systemic risk: The failure of a bank can also have systemic implications, as it can lead to a contagion effect that spreads to other banks and financial institutions, potentially causing a wider financial crisis.

Bank collapses are no small deal, and can have long lasting consequences that impact both individuals and the economy. Bank collapses can also have far reaching global geopolitical consequences. This is why it is important for governments to intervene, in one form or another, to prevent failures and minimize the potential impact of those failures.

Prevention Is Better Than the Cure

Dealing with bank failures after said failure is important, but implementing measures that can help prevent failures from happening in the first place is even more crucial to the health and security of the financial sphere. There are several steps that governments can take to help prevent future bank collapses:

1. Strengthen regulatory oversight: Governments can increase the power and resources of their regulatory agencies to better monitor banks and financial institutions. This can include implementing stricter capital requirements, stress testing, and other measures to ensure that banks have sufficient liquidity and are not taking excessive risks.

2. Improve transparency and accountability: Governments can require banks to be more transparent in their financial reporting and disclose more information about their activities. This can help investors and regulators better understand the risks associated with different financial products and institutions.

3. Increase consumer protection: Governments can implement stronger consumer protection regulations to ensure that individuals and businesses are not taken advantage of by financial institutions. This can include measures such as prohibiting predatory lending practices, regulating fees and charges, and ensuring that consumers have access to financial education and resources.

4. Foster competition: Governments can promote competition in the financial industry by encouraging the entry of new players and limiting the power of established institutions. This can help prevent the formation of large, too-big-to-fail banks that can pose a systemic risk to the financial system.

5. Develop crisis management plans: Governments can create contingency plans to manage financial crises, including the possibility of bank failures. This can involve establishing mechanisms for orderly resolution of failed banks and ensuring that there are adequate resources available to stabilize the financial system in the event of a crisis.

By implementing these critical measures, governments can potentially prevent future bank collapses and help to minimize the impact of financial crises on the economy and society as a whole. As the saying goes: an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure.